Understanding Embodied Carbon in Concrete: A Key Design Variable

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1. Introduction: Why Embodied Carbon in Concrete Suddenly Matters

For most of the last 30 years, “green buildings” have largely meant operational efficiency: energy labels, airtight envelopes, and smart HVAC. Today, that picture is shifting. As operational energy shrinks—especially in highly efficient European buildings—embodied carbon from materials can account for more than half of total life‑cycle emissions in advanced projects.

Concrete sits at the centre of this shift:

• Cement production alone is responsible for roughly 7–8% of global \mathrm{CO_2} emissions.
• The European building materials market is rapidly pivoting toward low-carbon cements, slag/fly ash blends, and geopolymers to meet EU Green Deal and national climate targets.

At the same time, the European Commission is tightening the screws on how we measure and compare embodied greenhouse gas emissions. EN 15804 and related standards now require life‑cycle based global warming potential (GWP) reporting for construction products, and the revised Construction Products Regulation (CPR) and taxonomy rules are moving toward mandatory, harmonised environmental product declarations (EPDs) and life‑cycle‑based carbon metrics.

For structural and building services engineers, this converges into a practical question:

How do we design, specify, test and document low‑carbon concretes and binders—geopolymers, slag/fly‑ash systems, new clinker chemistries—under an explicit CO₂ budget per building element, in a way that stands up to NS/EN control, project risk reviews, and client expectations?

This article explores that question in depth:

1. Historical context of embodied carbon in concrete and how alternative binders emerged.
2. Current relevance, including policy signals from the European Commission and market data on low‑carbon cement and green materials.
3. Practical applications through project‑level case examples, with a focus on early‑phase “CO₂ budgeting” by building element (foundation, slab, load‑bearing system).
4. Future implications: standardisation trajectories, digital LCA integration, and the evolving role of geopolymers and alkali‑activated materials (AAMs).

The aim is to give academically robust yet practice‑oriented guidance—particularly for engineers who must translate high‑level climate goals into concrete mix designs, acceptance criteria, and test/documentation plans that can pass scrutiny under NS/EN and risk management frameworks.

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2. Historical Context: From OPC Dominance to Alternative Binders

2.1 Portland Cement and the Rise of Embodied Carbon

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) has been the backbone of modern construction for over a century. Its technical advantages—predictable performance, global availability, and codified design rules—have made it nearly universal.

But OPC is also carbon‑intensive for two fundamental reasons:

1. Calcination emissions: roughly two‑thirds of cement’s \mathrm{CO_2} emissions come from the decomposition of limestone (\mathrm{CaCO_3 \rightarrow CaO + CO_2}) in the kiln.
2. Thermal energy: the remaining third is primarily due to high‑temperature fuel combustion in the kiln, historically dominated by fossil fuels.

Life‑cycle studies regularly show that cement contributes about 74–81% of the cradle‑to‑gate GWP of conventional concrete mixes, with aggregates contributing roughly 13–20%. This concentration of impact makes binders the obvious first target for decarbonisation.

2.2 Early Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs)

From the mid‑20th century onward, industrial by‑products such as:

• Fly ash (FA) from coal‑fired power generation,
• Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) from steelmaking,
• Silica fume (SF) from silicon and ferrosilicon alloy production,

began to be used as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) to partially replace clinker in cement and concrete.

Early motivations were performance‑driven—durability, sulfate resistance, reduced heat of hydration—rather than carbon, but the effect on GWP is substantial:

• Blended concretes with 20–50% clinker replacement by FA, GGBFS, SF, or metakaolin typically achieve cradle‑to‑gate GWP in the range of \sim 250–330\ \mathrm{kg\ CO_2,eq/m^3}, compared with \sim 320–450\ \mathrm{kg\ CO_2,eq/m^3} for pure OPC mixes.

This set the stage for low‑clinker cements and modern “eco‑cement” formulations.

2.3 From SCMs to Geopolymers and Alkali‑Activated Materials

A more radical strand of innovation emerged in the late 20th century: alkali‑activated materials (AAMs) and geopolymers, which replace Portland clinker altogether with reactive alumino‑silicate precursors (e.g. fly ash, slag, calcined clays) activated with alkaline solutions.

Life‑cycle assessments consistently show that AAM binders can significantly reduce global warming potential compared with OPC, often by 20–60%, though results are sensitive to activator type and local energy mixes.

• Geopolymer concretes using industrial side streams have reported cradle‑to‑gate GWP levels of \sim 150–250\ \mathrm{kg\ CO_2,eq/m^3}, versus \sim 320–450 for OPC concretes.
• Systematic reviews conclude that AAMs offer substantial GWP advantages, while highlighting trade‑offs in other environmental indicators (e.g. some ion emissions, chemical hazards) and data uncertainty.

These systems remained niche for decades, largely due to:

• Lack of harmonised standards and design codes,
• Concerns over long‑term durability,
• Complexities in handling alkaline activators,
• Conservative procurement and liability frameworks.

2.4 Life‑Cycle Assessment (LCA) Matures

In parallel, Life‑Cycle Assessment (LCA) matured from academic method to regulatory backbone:

• ISO 14040/14044 defined LCA principles and requirements.
• EN 15804 (and EN 16757 for concrete) established core rules for Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) of construction products, including mandatory reporting of GWP over standardised modules A1–A3, C1–C4 and D.
• ISO 21930 aligned building product EPDs globally.

By the 2010s and 2020s, major ready‑mix producers in Europe and North America were publishing industry‑wide EPDs for “average” concretes, with cradle‑to‑gate GWP values for typical strength classes.

At this point, the technical and methodological building blocks for embodied carbon accounting in concrete were largely in place, even though they were not yet universally applied in everyday design.

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3. Current Relevance: Policy Signals, Market Trends, and Data

3.1 European Policy: From Energy Performance to Life‑Cycle Carbon

The European regulatory landscape is now moving decisively from “operational only” to full life‑cycle climate performance:

• The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) has progressively tightened operational energy requirements; as those get lower, embodied impacts loom larger.
• The Renovation Wave strategy explicitly recognises that embodied emissions must be addressed alongside operational energy, particularly in deep renovations and high‑performance new builds.
• EN 15804+A2 and EN 16757 require construction products—including cements and concretes—to report GWP contributions broken down into fossil, biogenic, and land‑use‑change components (GWP‑fossil, GWP‑biogenic, GWP‑LULUC, and GWP‑total), and prescribe system boundaries and modules.

A recent wave of EU and national initiatives goes further toward harmonised life‑cycle‑based carbon accounting for building materials:

• The EU taxonomy defines thresholds for “substantially contributing” construction activities, including embodied‑carbon benchmarks per square meter of floor area.
• Several member states (e.g. France with RE2020, parts of the Nordics, the Netherlands) are introducing or tightening whole‑life carbon caps for buildings and minimum requirements for low‑carbon materials, explicitly referencing EPD‑based LCAs.

In practice, this means that for many projects in Europe:

• Carbon transparency is no longer optional.
• Design teams must be able to show life‑cycle‑based GWP figures per product and per building, using EN‑compliant data and tools.

3.2 Market Growth of Low‑Carbon Binders and Green Materials

Market data reflect this shift. The European green building materials market was valued at about USD 62.4 billion in 2024, is estimated at USD 67.3 billion in 2025, and projected to reach roughly USD 121.4 billion by 2033 (CAGR 7.8%). The cement segment alone accounts for about 37.4% of this market and is characterised by:

• Rapid adoption of low‑carbon cement formulations, fly‑ash and slag‑blended binders, and performance cements with lower clinker content.
• Investments in carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) at cement plants.

At the same time, commercial products like ECOPlanet, Vertua and EcoCrete report CO₂ reductions of 40–66% relative to reference cements or concretes, often with 20% or more secondary raw material content.

3.3 Embodied Carbon Benchmarks for Concrete

Comparative LCA studies provide useful ranges to anchor CO₂ budgets:

Table 1 – Typical cradle‑to‑gate GWP ranges (A1–A3) per 1\ \mathrm{m^3} of concrete

Mix type	Typical GWP100 [\mathrm{kg\ CO_2,eq/m^3}]	Notes
Conventional OPC concrete	\sim 320–450	100% clinker, natural aggregates
Blended concrete (20–50% SCM)	\sim 250–330	FA, GGBFS, SF, metakaolin blends
Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC)	\sim 300–420	GWP reduction modest; carbonation effects later
Low‑carbon hybrid (SCM + RCA)	\sim 220–300	Synergistic SCM + recycling
Geopolymer concrete	\sim 150–250	AAM, very dependent on activator and energy mix

Within this landscape, recent work comparing low‑carbon mixes for 3D‑printed concrete found that GGBFS‑rich mixes achieved the lowest GWP (~287 kg \mathrm{CO_2,eq/m^3}); comparable FA and waste‑glass‑powder options were ~37–50% higher for the same functional performance.

3.4 Why Embodied Carbon in Concrete Is Now a “First‑Order” Design Variable

Three converging trends make embodied carbon in concrete a first‑order optimisation variable rather than an afterthought:

1. Policy and standardisation: EC frameworks and national codes are setting hard caps and requiring LCA documentation.
2. Market pressure: developers, funds and occupiers increasingly demand EPD‑backed, low‑GWP structures to meet net‑zero and disclosure obligations.
3. Technical potential: current evidence shows 20–60% GWP reduction is achievable at mix level via clinker substitution, alternative binders and recycling, without sacrificing performance when properly designed and tested.

The challenge—and opportunity—for engineers is to turn that potential into repeatable project practice, particularly in the early design phases where the structural system and material palette are defined.

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4. Low‑Carbon Binders and Alternative Cement Chemistries

4.1 Geopolymers and Alkali‑Activated Materials (AAMs)

Definition and mechanisms. AAMs/geopolymers use alumino‑silicate precursors (e.g. fly ash, slag, calcined clays, some industrial waste streams) activated by alkaline solutions (e.g. sodium silicate, sodium hydroxide). The main binding phases differ from traditional calcium‑silicate‑hydrate (C–S–H) and can exhibit superior chemical and thermal resistance.

Environmental performance.

• Systematic reviews conclude that AAMs offer substantial reductions in global warming potential, often in the range of 20–60% vs OPC, depending on the specific system and region.
• However, impacts in other categories (e.g. human toxicity, ecotoxicity, resource use) can increase for some formulations, especially where caustic activators and high‑purity chemicals are used.

Technical considerations:

• Standards: design codes for AAM concrete are still evolving; most current practice proceeds under performance‑based approaches or project‑specific approvals.
• Rheology and setting: AAMs can provide very rapid strength gain and high buildability (advantageous for 3D‑printing and precast) but require tight process control; poor tuning can result in too short a printability window or workability loss.
• Durability: many geopolymer systems show excellent resistance to chlorides, sulfates and high temperatures, but long‑term field data remain less extensive than for OPC.

4.2 Slag‑ and Fly‑Ash‑Based Low‑Clinker Cements

GGBFS‑rich systems. GGBFS is a classic SCM that:

• Improves durability and lowers permeability.
• Enables clinker reductions of 30–50% while maintaining or improving long‑term strength.
• Typically reduces cement‑level GWP significantly due to avoided clinker and valorisation of steel by‑product streams.

In both conventional and 3D‑printable concretes, 20–30% GGBFS often provides the best balance of rheology, early strength, buildability and long‑term performance.

Fly‑ash‑rich systems. Fly ash (FA) is now constrained by coal phase‑out but remains important where available:

• FA lowers clinker demand and improves workability; in 3D printing, it can reduce yield stress and plastic viscosity, widening the printability window when used at moderate dosages.
• FA‑based geopolymers have demonstrated good mechanical and durability performance and lower embodied carbon, but face the same standardisation and sourcing challenges as other AAMs.

4.3 “New Chemistries”: LC³, Belite‑Rich and Other Eco‑Cements

Beyond classic SCM blends, the industry is exploring:

• LC³ (limestone calcined clay cements): typically combining clinker, calcined clay and limestone filler to achieve clinker factor reductions of 30–50% or more.
• Belite‑rich clinkers: lower‑lime, lower‑temperature clinkers with a higher belite (C_2S) content, trading somewhat slower early strength for reduced process emissions.
• Carbon‑cured and carbonation‑hardening systems: cements or concretes cured under elevated \mathrm{CO_2} pressure, partially sequestering carbon and altering microstructure.

LC³ and related systems can deliver GWP reductions similar to high‑SCM blends without relying solely on traditional FA or slag, an important strategic shift as those by‑products become scarcer.

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5. Embodied Carbon and Life‑Cycle Assessment in Concrete

5.1 LCA Basics for Concrete and Binders

Under EN 15804/EN 16757, the life cycle of a concrete product is conceptually divided into modules:

• A1–A3: product stage (“cradle‑to‑gate”) – raw material extraction, clinker and SCM production, aggregate processing, batching.
• A4–A5: transport to site and construction process.
• B1–B7: use stage – includes carbonation uptake in service (B1) and operational energy where relevant.
• C1–C4: end‑of‑life – demolition, crushing, waste processing, disposal.
• D: beyond system boundary – credits/debits for material or energy substitution in subsequent life cycles.

For mix‑level embodied carbon budgeting, the most common focus is GWP100 per 1\ \mathrm{m^3} of concrete for A1–A3, sometimes extended to include C and D for whole‑life assessments.

Key modelling decisions include:

1. Allocation for secondary raw materials (e.g. FA, slag, recycled aggregates): often treated from the “end‑of‑waste” point; upstream impacts may be assigned to the primary process.
2. Carbonation: inclusion of \mathrm{CO_2} uptake during use and after crushing can significantly affect the net balance, especially for high‑cement concretes.
3. Module D credits: recycling benefits for aggregates or binders entering new cycles.
4. Data quality: using region‑appropriate datasets (e.g. electricity mixes, transport distances) and PCR‑consistent assumptions.

5.2 Tools and Workflows

Professional practice increasingly relies on:

• General LCA tools: SimaPro, openLCA, One Click LCA, eToolLCD, etc., integrated with databases such as ecoinvent.
• Sector‑specific tools: GCCA Industry EPD Tool for clinker, cement, aggregates and concrete, and Revit/Tally‑type plugins for BIM‑integrated assessments.

For a structural engineer, the critical shift is to treat LCA parameters as design variables early in the process, not as an after‑the‑fact check.

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6. “CO₂ Budgeting” in Practice: Element‑Level Strategies

6.1 What Is “CO₂ Budgeting” for Structures?

“CO₂ budgeting” in this context means:

• Allocating a quantitative GWP budget (e.g. \mathrm{kg\ CO_2,eq}) to each major building element—foundation system, slabs, vertical load‑bearing system, cores—based on a project‑level carbon target (e.g. \mathrm{kg\ CO_2,eq/m^2} over A1–A3 or A1–C).
• Designing the material strategy per element—binder type, mix composition, cement content, aggregate sources, reinforcement strategy—to stay within that budget without compromising structural safety, serviceability or durability.
• Embedding this into the early‑phase design (sketch, concept, feasibility) where decisions on grids, spans, and systems have the greatest leverage.

Concretely, instead of asking “What C30/37 mix does the supplier have?” you ask:

“What combination of strength class, binder family and section geometry yields the lowest total GWP per kN of capacity for this slab zone, within our CO₂ budget and NS/EN verification envelope?”

6.2 Foundations: High Loads, High Volumes, Limited Freedom

Challenges:

• Foundations and ground slabs consume large concrete volumes.
• Conservative safety factors and ground uncertainties often push designs toward high cement contents or generous thickness.

CO₂ budgeting tactics:

1. Strength matching instead of over‑specifying
   • Carefully optimise characteristic strength and partial factors based on NS‑EN 1992 and geotechnical interactions, avoiding “default to C35/45” where C25/30 is adequate.
   • Each strength class step can add \sim 20–40\ \mathrm{kg\ CO_2,eq/m^3}, depending on cement content and admixture strategy.
2. High SCM / low‑clinker binders
   • Use GGBFS‑rich or LC³ cements for most foundation volumes, with OPC‑rich mixes reserved only where early strength or extreme exposure demands it.
   • Typical foundation exposure classes (e.g. XF, XS) can often be met with 30–50% clinker replacement, provided curing and cover are adequate.
3. Alternative binders where standards allow
   • For mass foundations, precast piles or ground‑improvement elements, consider geopolymer or AAM concretes if local approvals and supply chains exist. These can reduce binder‑related emissions significantly.
4. Recycled aggregates with clear QA/QC
   • Use recycled aggregates (RCA) in low‑risk elements (e.g. blinding layers, non‑structural slabs), where strength and durability requirements are moderate but volumes are high.
   • Strictly control contaminants (gypsum, asphalt, wood, etc.) to avoid performance penalties.

Documentation and acceptance criteria:

• Element‑specific mix families with target GWP ranges (e.g. “Foundation Mix F1: <280\ \mathrm{kg\ CO_2,eq/m^3}, C30/37, XF2, 40% GGBFS, EN 206 compliant”).
• Verification via third‑party EPDs or specific LCA calculations for custom blends.
• Testing plan covering compressive strength, durability indicators (chloride migration, freeze–thaw), and, where non‑standard binders are used, project‑specific performance tests.

6.3 Floor Slabs: Big Surface, Rich Optimisation Space

Slabs are ideal candidates for CO₂ budgeting because:

• They represent large material volumes.
• Geometry and structural system (flat slabs vs. ribbed, composite, timber‑hybrid) offer multiple levers.

CO₂ budgeting tactics:

1. System choice
   • Compare flat slabs, one‑ or two‑way ribbed slabs, and partial composite or timber–concrete systems using GWP per \mathrm{m^2}, not just per \mathrm{m^3} of concrete.
   • A ribbed system with 20–30% less concrete volume, combined with a 30–50% clinker reduction, can dramatically cut total slab embodied emissions.
2. Low‑clinker or geopolymer mixes for spans
   • Use high‑SCM concretes or geopolymers in spans where early‑age strength demands are modest; reserve OPC‑rich or rapid‑setting mixes for edges, joints or heavily loaded bearing zones.
   • For precast hollow‑core elements, work with suppliers on eco‑cement variants that keep production cycles manageable.
3. Integration with building physics
   • Use the thermal mass of concrete slabs intentionally to reduce operational loads, and capture that in whole‑life LCA. A slightly higher GWP mix may be justified if it delivers consistent operational energy savings within the building’s climate and usage profile.
4. Elemental CO₂ KPIs
   • For example, “Office floor slab zone: A1–A3 GWP target ≤ 60\ \mathrm{kg\ CO_2,eq/m^2} gross floor area for structure only,” then back‑solve allowable concrete GWP given thickness and reinforcement.

6.4 Load‑Bearing Systems: Cores, Columns, Walls

Vertical systems often concentrate reinforcement and higher strength classes but can be slender in volume terms.

CO₂ budgeting tactics:

1. Material choice per element type
   • Use high‑performance, low‑clinker concrete where high strength is essential (slender columns, tall cores), often combining GGBFS and SF to achieve high strengths with reduced clinker.
   • Where geometry allows more area, a lower strength, lower‑clinker mix may yield similar total GWP with better durability.
2. Hybrid and alternative materials
   • Evaluate timber or timber‑hybrid cores, steel–concrete composite columns, or steel frames with low‑carbon concrete infills, particularly in mid‑rise typologies where fire and stiffness demands permit.
   • Assess full life‑cycle effects, including bio‑based carbon and potential re‑use.
3. Rationalised grids and repetition
   • Early architect–engineer iterations to rationalise spans and grid layouts can reduce over‑design and enable systematic use of optimised low‑carbon mixes, instead of a patchwork of bespoke solutions.

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7. Making It Auditable: Test and Documentation Plans Under NS/EN

For CO₂ budgeting to withstand scrutiny, material strategies must be backed by robust acceptance criteria and a clearly structured test/documentation plan.

7.1 Structural and Durability Requirements

All mixes—especially those using alternative binders or high SCM levels—must be demonstrably compliant with:

• NS‑EN 206 (concrete specification, performance, production and conformity) and associated national annexes.
• Relevant parts of Eurocode 2 and any national application documents.
• Project‑specific exposure and durability requirements (e.g. XS, XD, XF classes; frost exposure; chemical aggression).

This typically implies:

• Characteristic compressive strengths with statistically verified margins.
• Durability testing (e.g. rapid chloride migration, water absorption, carbonation resistance, freeze–thaw cycling) matched to exposure classes.
• Where AAMs or non‑traditional binders are used, equivalent performance testing rather than direct code prescriptions.

7.2 Embodied Carbon Requirements

To make embodied carbon auditable:

1. Define explicit carbon metrics per element
   • Example: A1–A3 GWP per 1\ \mathrm{m^3} concrete, with clear maximum thresholds per mix, referenced back to project‑level targets (e.g. kg \mathrm{CO_2,eq/m^2} of floor area).
   • For some tenders, include A1–C or A1–D metrics where end‑of‑life scenarios and recycling credits are material.
2. Require product‑specific EPDs or robust generic data
   • Specify that all major concrete and cement products must carry EPDs compliant with EN 15804+A2/ISO 14025, or else provide LCA data from recognised databases that align with project PCRs.
   • Confirm system boundaries, functional unit (1\ \mathrm{m^3} of concrete with specified strength), and data age.
3. Set LCA modelling assumptions in the project brief
   • Electricity mix, transport distances, allocation rules for SCMs and recycled aggregates, treatment of carbonation and module D, so that competing tenders are comparable.

7.3 Test and Monitoring Plan

A robust plan might include:

• Pre‑qualification: laboratory testing of candidate mixes (low‑clinker, geopolymer, RCA‑rich, etc.) for workability, strength development, shrinkage, and durability indicators.
• Pilot elements or mock‑ups: cast or printed elements replicating critical details (slab–column joints, core walls) to verify performance and constructability.
• Site QA/QC: regular slump/flow tests, temperature logs, compressive strength cubes/cores, and—importantly—tracking of actual mix design vs. specified low‑carbon formulations, including cement content and SCM ratios.
• Post‑completion monitoring (for research or high‑innovation projects): structural health monitoring, crack surveys, and, where relevant, carbonation depth measurement to validate assumptions used in the LCA.

By treating the CO₂ budget as a primary acceptance criterion alongside strength and durability—and documenting it with the same rigour—project teams create a defensible record against both regulatory and commercial scrutiny.

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8. Future Implications: Standardisation, Digitalisation, and New Materials

8.1 Toward Harmonised Embodied Carbon Metrics and Caps

The European Commission’s move toward life‑cycle‑based impact frameworks—under the CPR, taxonomy, and EPBD—will likely yield:

• More widespread mandatory whole‑life carbon assessments for large projects, using EN 15978 and EN 15804 families of standards.
• Embodied carbon caps per square meter by building type and climate zone, tightening over time, with explicit reference to EN‑compliant GWP metrics.
• Greater use of material passports and digital product data (EPD integration in BIM) to support reuse and circularity.

In that environment, CO₂ budgeting per building element will become a standard design activity rather than a niche practice.

8.2 Digital Twin LCAs and AI‑Enhanced Design

As BIM‑integrated LCA tools and building operating data mature:

• Digital twins will allow near real‑time feedback on operational vs. embodied performance, capturing actual construction choices, material substitutions, and changes over time.
• AI‑based optimisation (already used in tunnelling and process control) will increasingly be applied to structural design and mix selection, exploring vast design spaces to meet strength, serviceability, cost and CO₂ constraints simultaneously.

For engineers, the challenge is to maintain transparent, physics‑grounded reasoning in an environment where optimisation tools become more opaque.

8.3 The Evolving Role of Alternative Binders

Current research points to several likely developments:

• Geopolymers and AAMs moving from niche to mainstream in certain segments (e.g. precast elements, repair mortars, fire‑resistant linings, possibly structural elements in codes that explicitly recognise them).
• Hybrid binder systems (e.g. OPC + GGBFS + calcined clay + recycled fines) designed around local resource streams and circular‑economy constraints.
• Increased adoption of CO₂ curing and mineralisation processes for blocks, panels and possibly in‑situ concretes, especially where suitable industrial \mathrm{CO_2} streams and logistics exist.

However, AAMs also raise regulatory and supply‑chain questions: activator availability, health and safety, ecotoxicity, and long‑term performance. Ongoing LCA studies are starting to address these issues systematically.

8.4 Skills, Governance, and Risk

Finally, successful low‑carbon material strategies require:

• Upskilling of engineers, contractors and authorities in LCA, alternative binders, and QA/QC for recycled materials.
• Clear governance: who owns the CO₂ budget? Who decides when a carbon‑intensive “escape hatch” (e.g. more clinker) is justified?
• Risk allocation: contracts and insurance frameworks that appropriately share the performance risks of innovative materials while avoiding a race to the least‑ambitious option.

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9. Conclusion: From Ambition to Practice

The convergence of climate policy, market pressure and technical feasibility means that embodied carbon in concrete and binders is now a central design parameter, not a marginal concern. Alternative binders—geopolymers, slag and fly‑ash systems, LC³ and other low‑clinker chemistries—combined with robust, EN‑compliant LCA methods, make substantial GWP reductions both technically and economically plausible.

The key move from an engineering standpoint is to operationalise this potential through early‑phase CO₂ budgeting by building element:

• Set explicit, quantitative CO₂ budgets for foundations, slabs, and load‑bearing systems.
• Develop material strategies per element that combine geometry optimisation, low‑clinker or alternative binders, and, where appropriate, recycled aggregates and powders.
• Define acceptance criteria and test/documentation plans that integrate embodied carbon metrics alongside strength and durability, fully consistent with NS/EN standards.
• Use EPD‑based LCAs and BIM‑integrated tools to keep design decisions aligned with project‑level and regulatory carbon targets.

Future research and development should prioritise:

1. Standardised rheological and durability testing protocols for alternative binders and recycled constituents, especially in 3D‑printed and highly optimised concretes.
2. Long‑term field data on AAM and low‑clinker concretes under real exposure conditions.
3. Improved LCA datasets and methods for emerging binders, including ecotoxicity and resource use impacts.
4. Design guidance and codes that explicitly recognise AAMs, LC³ and next‑generation eco‑cements.

As European frameworks move toward harmonised, life‑cycle‑based accounting for global warming impacts, projects that embed CO₂ budgeting into their early structural and material decisions—supported by transparent testing and documentation—will be best positioned to comply, to differentiate in the market, and to genuinely shift the carbon profile of the built environment.

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